Pothole and Roads

Ever took a drive around Fayetteville? Avoiding pothole is a challenge these days. Driving down 71st and School these days is a nightmare. Repaving the roads in Fayetteville would be a big investment in many ways, not only would it improve the towns look, but it would also make it safer for the community members to drive on the roads. Fayetteville community members will be those in the end to put out the money for these potholes because they do damage to car.As â€Å"Experts say damaged roads lead to damaged cars, so motorists collectively end up paying millions of dollar to repair their cars, all because some cities aren’t spending the money to repair their roads† (Leamy and Weber, Par. 15). According to Midweek â€Å"Ball estimates that most pothole damage runs between $800 and $1,200 for repairs, which will always include new parts and front-end alignment. † (Pelusa, par. 8) As Joe Platt puts it, â€Å"We should not have to pay one more penny for our roadsâ⠂¬  (Letters to the Editor, Letter 2), which is understand able in time like these, but sadly the statistics show that we will put more money out in damage repair on our car then we would be putting out in taxes. â€Å"Hitting pothole have ‘a very large and harsh impact on out car, and over time it really going to do some damage. ’† (Leamy and Weber, Par. 14)Fixing our road would save the city of Fayetteville from a possible lawsuit of any kind, these potholes is a danger to the members of this town. †¦the state of California paid $1 million to the family of a San Francisco motorcyclist who died after hitting a pothole† (Leamy [and Weber, Par. 10). Also, in the state of Indiana a woman suffered serve head injuries after hitting a pothole (Leamy and Weber, Par. 10). This goes to show that this can happen to a Fayetteville community member as well, and this alone should make cities want to repave the roads. â€Å"Sometimes, though, your vehicle just ca n’t protect you from serious accidents when hitting a nasty pothole. † Another reason to fix our road is those potholes are really annoying to drive over every day.According to the article Potholes Cost Drivers Millions in Car Repairs â€Å"Gary Richard, a transportation reporter at the San Jose Mercury News, said readers complain all the time that potholes drive them nuts† (Leamy and Weber, par. 11). I know that every driver has hit their share of pot holes On the other hand, you may believe that repaving the road would be too much money, raise our taxes and, cause detour and traffic jams. These are all understandable reason of disbelief but in the end extra taxes, money, and traffic is all worth the smooth and safer roads.According to Midweek car damage from pothole, â€Å"include hole in the sidewall of the tire, tire knocked from rim, cracks or entire hunks knocked out of an aluminum alloy rims, suspension damage, damage to lower control arms and trailing ar ms† (Pelusa, par. 12). There are many sign of pothole damage such as â€Å"†¦pulling to one side while driving, stirring wheel shake or shimmy, vibrations on the floorboard, rubbing or grinding (Pelusa, par. 12). So in the end a little extra money on the roads can save us from spending more money on our cars. Plus the traffic is only a temporary deal that will clear up.Thus all these problems are worth it when it comes down to protecting our community members and their cars. It’s time to start looking at potholes in a different way, especially when driving over one. I hope this paper has been informative and persuasive because our roads are the number one need in this town and many other. New road would make our town look better as well and it not very appealing to visitor of Fayetteville when they see our roads. Covering potholes helps us save on unnecessary care repair, making it the best way to save. Though it is an expensive investment for the city and it memb ers, it still worth every penny.

The Narrative of Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca

Cabeza de Vaca, the treasurer of an expedition from Spain was shipwrecked and was ultimately forced to trek several miles by natives of Hernan Cortes. Cabeza de Vaca survived by learning the language of the natives and serving them as their physician. After eight years of living with them, he imbibed the culture of the native people in the area, developed an affinity with them such that his rescue from them was not quite a welcome treat for him.He and his 600 men meandered along the interior of New Spain but they ended up to only 4 men on the journey. This compassion for the natives is quite interesting as we see how he changed his ways and some beliefs about. There are many answers to this question. Some say that maybe De Vaca truly began to respect the natives’ ways. But in the context of the work, I believe this is nothing more than an extended case of Stockholm syndrome.It shows more the changes that he experienced with the natives over the course of his years in America s uch that he has been smitten by the natives (Societal Stockholm Syndrome). What is Stockholm Syndrome? This term was used during the early 70s to denote the different reactions of bank employees to the people who hostaged them. This happened when three women and one man was hostaged in one of the largest banks in Stockholm. Instead of completely resisting these ex-convicts, the captives even resisted the government’s efforts to rescue them.They had developed an affinity with the men. It may seem puzzling at first, but when one looks at this to explain what Cabeza de Vaca experienced with the natives, one can readily say that it was largely due to the fact that the Cabeza had developed compassion to the natives who also showed him kindness while they kept him prisoner (Societal Stockholm Syndrome). In sharing of himself and what he knows as a physician, his giving was also his receiving. At such time, giving is its own reward.He was with the natives at those times in a way he will never forget, even if they were to meet again after being separated. Sharing with love and caring comes when one gives freely of himself and what he has, and one reciprocates the kindness. This is gleaned all over his writings as illustrated in one of the Chapters where he recounts. â€Å"Then, supporting us under our arms, they hurried us from one to another of the four big fires they had built along the path.At each fire, when we regained a little warmth and strength, they took us on so swiftly our feet hardly touched ground. † (Cabeza de Vaca’s Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America). This seemed like being pampered guests instead of being captives. In any relationship, there are things one appreciates. If the relationship has much depth, such as what transpired in the narratives of Cabeza de Vaca, then, it was but natural for the Cabeza to be so involved with the activities of the natives. Telling them of his fears is as much a gift as telling them of h is appreciations.Sharing these feelings opened up the natives’ innate inclination toward elasticity and trust. Genuine concern for the welfare of the people in one’s life never takes the form of violence towards them as lived by the Cabeza. He did not use violence to gain his own ends and he even convinced himself that â€Å"it’s good for them† as when the natives initially became oppressive. It is difficult for one to acknowledge acts of violence and oppression for they are statements of one’s own feelings of incompetence.Perhaps the Cabeza knew that violence ultimately leads, in most cases, to results just the opposite of those it was intended to produce.REFERENCES Cabeza de Vaca’s Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America. Translated by Cyclone Covey. Retrieved May 29, 2007 at: http://www. ibiblio. org/eldritch/cdv/rel. htm#c19Castaway: The Narrative of Alvar Nunez Cageza de Vaca. University of California Press. September 23, 1993. So cietal Stockholm Syndrome. Retrieved May 29, 2007 at: http://web2. iadfw. net/ktrig246/out_of_cave/sss. html

Identifying Trainining Resources

UNIVERSITY OF BOTSWANA MASTER’S IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION MGT 745: HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT TOPIC: IDENTIFYING TRAINING RESOURCES Introduction This paper purports to outline steps needed to identify resources for training. It will illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of using different types of training drawing examples from the authors’ workplace experience. Resource could be defined as follows, â€Å"a source of supply, support, or aid, esp. one that can be readily drawn upon when needed. â€Å"†¦The total means available to a company for increasing production or profit, including plant, labor, and raw material; assets. † http://dictionary. reference. com/browse/resources Resources can be defined as assets available and anticipated for operations. These include people (learners, facilitators/trainers/consultants), time, infrastructure, equipment, availability of training institutions, and availability of financial resources (money/funds). The ki nd of resources required depend on the type of training that is to be carried out. Hence the identification of training resources is a critical component of training/ learning effectiveness that can be manifested at the individual, team, and organisation level. It is therefore important to identify training resources as this allows training to make a difference that is noticeable; training with a practical value or utility to both employees and the organization. One key factor in employee motivation and retention is the opportunity to continue to grow and develop job and career enhancing skills. Employees need to be equipped to handle employee relations and responsibilities competently. Training in any organization needs resources to be executed or implemented effectively hence the need to draw up a budget that can be utilized. The major resource for training is financial, therefore the need for the department to have cost estimates for most of the training being investigated. For example at the Botswana Police Forensic Science Laboratory, every financial year when budget estimates are drawn for the lab, training is included in the budget. Courses that need immediate attention (as per the need of the lab or gap that exist) are listed together alongside estimated costs and length of the training. Institutions that offer the training, course content, length of training and costs are identified beforehand. This budget is then submitted to the training board of the Botswana Police Service for screening and approval. In the Department of Vocational Education and Training (DVET), short term training budget is decentralized to regional offices and the budget tends to be similar or vary slightly from the previous year whereas long term training budget is coordinated at head quarters. The implication is that short term training budget may not necessarily reconcile with any required training. The organization should also take cognizance of the fact that people learn in different ways, therefore the training has to match employee learning preferences which may help to speed up their training and reduce costs at the same time. Some considerations when identifying resources for training are: †¢ What areas need training to be conducted? i. e. identifying problem areas. †¢ Who needs training and in what area? †¢ How complex is the training that is needed? †¢ How much time do learners have to learn the new knowledge and skills? How much money is available to pay for the training, whether in-house or using a consultant? †¢ How capable are learners to undertake the training? †¢ What are learner's learning preferences and styles? For example, in DVET training for the junior officers (industrial class) is normally done in Setswana. †¢ What institutions are available for tailored or the required training? †¢ Could training be conducted in hous e, on the job, outsourcing or in external institutions? And which method could suite learners? And benefit the organisation in a valuable and practical manner. Types of Training Resources Internal Training The types of training, classified as internal, external or a hybrid of the two have a bearing on the types of resources needed to implement. Internal training can be mentoring, coaching, seminars, workshops or classroom based training e. g. at the department of Government Printing, there is internal classroom based training whereby employees are taught within the department. The training is based on the theory and technical knowledge that the staff needs in order to improve their performance and prepare them for further training. This type of training requires a trainer, classroom, equipment such as projectors, television and video technologies. After completion of this internal training, qualifying employees are then sent for further training abroad for a higher learning programme. In the case of Printing, where there are no local institutions that offer training within the country, the department relies on colleges/universities based in the United Kingdom. The Department of Land Board Services in the Ministry of Lands and Housing mostly provide classroom based training, for example, on introduction to computers. This training is conducted mainly for the industrial class workforce to equip them with basic skills for working and operating computers. The resources used for this type of training include computers, Information Technology officers who conduct the training and the members of staff. At DVET regional offices most short term training programs are externally sourced where it is assumed that specialized courses for specific needs and in addition staff are given liberty to select training courses and institutions but subject to approval by supervisors and funds permitting. Other general training courses such as customer services improvement courses are selected by human resources officers as part of staff development. However, public sector reforms are cascaded internally form senior management to junior officers in consultation/ facilitation with performance improvement coordinators and funds have to be availed as a matter of priority, at times combining facilitators, equipment and funds across departments within the same ministry. It is essential to note that internal training is not as costly as external training which is one of its major advantages, as it is cost effective. Many businesses choose to train employees in-house (type of internal training) can offer a number of advantages over external training providers. Internal training can be: †¢ tailored to specific business' needs †¢ scheduled for a time that suits business †¢ time effective – employees do not spend additional time or money traveling However, there are a number of disadvantages to note including some of the following: †¢ The possible tendency for employees not to take the training seriously especially if it is conducted by a core employee with low reputation within the organisation or has less to offer to other employees. Difficulties faced by the organisation to identify a suitable trainer or the necessary resources in-house / internally. †¢ The potential risk of passing or perpetuating existing inefficiencies or poor business practices For internal training to be effective, HR managers need to ensure they have the appropriate expertise and resources in -house. They will have to dedicate the necessary resources to training programmes. These resources could include management time, an experienced trainer, training or course materials, equipment such as PCs, telephones or machinery and space in which to carry out the training. To help expose and enhance the skills of internal trainer with less information to offer to learners, consideration should be given to send them on a train-the-trainer course to ensure their training methods and materials are up to date and effective. Alternatively, if there are no necessary skills in-house, HR managers could purchase off-the-shelf or tailor-made courses or choose whether to use an internal or external trainer to run the course. This should be supplemented by appropriate e-learning courses and investing in internal training support databses. There are tailor-made courses covering a wide range of topics, one should choose a course that meets organizational and employees needs. They can be targeted, confidential and cost a fraction of the price of sending each employee on an external scheme. ON- The- Job Training (OJT) Under internal training there is also On-the-job training (OJT): Having a person learns a job by actually doing the job. OJT methods Coaching/ understudy For example at the BPS Forensic lab, when new employees start work (newly employed), they first undergo intensive in-house training before they can be released to work independently. At first they circulate in all the sections of the lab to get an overview of what each section does, then after which they are sent to the relevant sections they were employed to join. This is where they are taken through intensive coaching on the tests that are carried out at that particular section. Trainees are taught the theory behind the tests done, shown how to do the actual tests, then do the tests themselves under the supervision of the facilitator (usually an experienced member of the section). At the end a supervisor assesses them both theoretically and practically. When they satisfy the required standard of performance, they are then allowed to work independently. At DVET coaching of new staff does not follow any uniform structure. The new staff members will be coached on the requirements of the job and will then conditions will require older staff in the field to assign tasks coach and supervise the new staff work. At DVET our coaching has advantage of making new staff get to know how to do work quickly, but has disadvantage of not being documented hence may not necessarily consistently follow any set guidelines. Job rotation Job rotation consists of moving a trainee from department to department to broaden his or her experience and identify strong and weak points, the method is inexpensive and provides an organisation with immediate feed back. In the Department of Culture and Youth, Performing arts Unit job rotation is widely used mainly because of lack of staff. An Arts Festival organizer and manager could be assigned perform information and systems analysis activities/ funds allocation / research and documentation activities. This has worked for the department through the years as the organisation is sure of continuity of its programmes despite the loss of any officer in certain specialty areas. One officer who was originally a Performing Arts research and documentation officer ended up being a systems analysis officer. The officer realized that he did not really enjoy his line of specialty hence could easily shift from one specialty to the next for the benefit of the organisation. Seminars and Workshops At the BPS Forensic Lab, some seminars/workshops are conducted for all the employees on certain subjects, e. g. Occupation Health and Safety workshops. Employees gather at a venue and a consultant/facilitator is sourced to deliver on the subject. However, for other workshops one or two employees are chosen to attend on behalf of the lab (especially for those that involve a wide range of participants from different labs/departments and charge expensive attendance fees). After the seminar/workshops the rep(s) share what they have learnt with other employees of the Forensic lab through presentations. They also produce a report which is sent to the Police HR department and a copy left with the Director, Forensic Science Services. At DVET seminar and workshops are the major methods used to enhance skills of staff for short term training. External Training External training has to do more with taking employees to an institution or a place outside the parameters of the working environment. Unlike internal training, this requires more and extensive preparation. It is also capital intensive as more money is needed to pay for accommodation, food, learning materials and other costs associated with training. The HR unit has to first identify appropriate institutions where they can send their employees and his takes time as one has to research on the place before making any decisions. After completing the research a database of these learning places is created so as to have readily available information on where to get what kind of training and at what cost. In identifying these training institutions, the HR unit can send out tenders/quotations to companies. In other cases, institutions themselves send out brochures o r call the organizations and advertise themselves. For example, BNPC and BOBS email their training programmes for the year to our department on matters relating to productivity and quality management. They also advertise on the newspapers. At DVET regional offices every year a compiled list of staff needs are sent to HR officers at head office who in turn prioritize and select officers from training. However, due concerns on transparency of the wholly exercise a training committee is about to start working on staff training, though its guidelines are yet to be finalized. Attachment An example of external training which may not be as costly is sending employees for attachments to other organizations that offer similar services or have advanced technology that you need to learn about. As some people learn better in a practical environment, so sending them for an attachment to an organization that offers the same or similar services will be vital. This kind of training is very cost effective because sometimes if it is done locally, not much money is spent. Example: The department of GPPS wanted to buy new equipment, an image-setter which we found was available at a local private printing house. One officer from the unit that uses the equipment was sent to that company for three months to learn how to operate the equipment. There was no money required as the company offered to help. The training was effective as the employees now assists in operating the equipment and was also able to teach colleagues in the same unit. Example of External training at the BPS Forensic Lab It comes in the following forms a) Attachment of Scientists to labs outside Botswana who have advanced technologies and expertise that ours. The scientists are sent there to learn how to do certain tests or how to operate certain machinery. When they come back, they teach other members of the section, make presentations to the whole lab, and produce a report. b) Short courses (e. g. o obtain certificates on certain operations), Masters’s Degrees in Forensic Science as well as PHD’s in Forensic Science. These courses are offered outside Botswana (no local institution offers courses on Forensics at present), and in many instances people are sent to the UK or the USA. The skills that they acquire in their training are also shared by teaching others what they learnt and also come up wi th better ways of doing things. They also submit reports and make presentations. Apprenticeship training It is a structured process by which people become skilled workers through a combination of classroom instruction and on-the-job training. At the University of Botswana this is done mainly by the engineering department. Students spend time in the classroom learning there after take a semester or 2 working on attachment with DeBeers or any engineering company. This method is advantageous because it links work experience with the learning experience hence preparing a learner to be ready for the workplace. Furthermore, to cut cost in external resource training  an HR Manager should plan ahead to cut costs. That way the manager could be able to send or book a course for a larger group of people to get discounts. Or could send one person on a training course and ask them to teach others in the business. Or take up free offers and cheap training from providers of new machinery and systems. How to identify External Resources Important Steps for identifying external resources drawn from the authors’ various workplaces, 1) List all institutes that offer training and information about them that is location, contacts, type of workshops, Etc. There are many institutes offering training courses, workshops and programs. With the advent of the Internet, many sites also offer free or chargeable online training. ) List key training areas offered by each institute 3) Relate each training area to employees’ needs, competencies and capabilities identified earlier. 4) List web sites that offer free or chargeable online training and maintain up to date information. 5) Correspond with institutes to keep the Department up to date. The advantages of using training providers are: †¢ they are sp ecialists †¢ they can bring you up to date on current best practice and new ideas †¢ employees may interact with counterparts in other companies †¢ employees may learn better away from their usual work environment The disadvantages: it is difficult to know the ability and subject knowledge of the trainer †¢ putting an entire team through training at the same time can disrupt your business †¢ they are more costly than delivering internally †¢ the training may not be specific to your particular business †¢ Not up to date lists of institutions will lead to loss of time when training is required. †¢ Limited knowledge in what is available in terms of training may lead to misconceptions about what the staff may require in terms of their training. E-learning and distance learning courses: There are different types of distance learning methods including correspondence courses and e-learning courses. Some courses may be completed online while others might incorporate study books, CD-ROMs or audio and video tapes backed up by student tutorials and seminars. Distance education and E – learning are therefore advantageous because they †¢ allow employees to complete training while remaining in employment †¢ can be completed at a time to suit the business and employees †¢ are cheaper than externally provided courses are available for a wide range of business topics †¢ Offer recognized qualifications from entry level diplomas and certificates to post-graduate degrees. Training via the Internet: Using the internet or proprietary internal intranets to facilitate computer-based training. University of Botswana has recently established an E-Learning e. g. WEBCT, programme whereby students and staff could learn th rough internet/ intranet. This type of computer based learning carry the Advantages of reduced learning time, cost-effectiveness and consistency in instruction material, methods and presentation. The University also has distance programmes offering Degree in business studies and Diploma in Primary Teaching Education. Radio/ Teletraining: A trainer in a central location teaches groups of employees at remote/ or different locations via TV hookups. This is mainly used by Ministry of Education especially through radio. As a teacher one experience radio lessons whereby both students are taught through radio and instructions are given to the teacher as to how or what to provide to the students. Videoconferencing: Interactively training employees who are geographically separated from each other—or from the trainer—via a combination of audio and visual equipment. One recalls a situation whereby, students who studied Music at University of Natal – Petermarisburg campus from 1999 – 2000 experienced video conferencing. At the time the University, currently known as Univesrsity of Kwazulu Natal, offered Music Degree at the Durban Campus, which then disadvantaged students in petermarisburg. Therefore the University devised the video conferencing to train Petermarisburg students in music courses from Durban campus. While lesson were on process in Durban Petermarisburg students also experienced an interactive and learning process of the same class through video conferencing. Conclusion While internal training is important and can be invaluable in some areas of development, the external training process can add interest, give a greater breadth of experience and working practices, and equally important is the freedom to be able to choose a course and a style of learning that is suitable for each individual, rather than the department or team as a whole. Each individual member of the workforce will have different needs, both in terms of the type of training they require, the level of training and of course the time needed to train. Pitman Training for example, offers flexible learning, which means companies can guarantee each of their employees is meeting their individual achievements and targets, while fitting in their study at a time which suits them. Training can be done at their convenience, without having to sacrifice time at work and also without upsetting that all important work-life balance. Possibly the biggest benefit of drawing on the expertise of an external trainer such as Pitman Training, is the attraction of gaining a nationally recognized certification – providing your staff with confidence that they're receiving quality training, and your company the knowledge that it has quality trained staff All types of training resources seem to carry advantages and disadvantages; this study recommends that an organisation should choose training resources according to its learner’s needs and capabilities. Organizations could outsource trainers who would make the learning meaningful; skills transfer easy and motivate the learner. Outsourcing has the advantage of quickly addressing specific needs, and easier to coordinate but has the disadvantage of being relatively expensive. Organizations could also broaden employee’s skills through on job training and in house seminars, workshops as well as forums and short courses to save on time and cost since time is an essential tool for effective production and success of the organisation. It is advised that organizations should purchase training resources such as laptops, projectors, mobile screen, flip charts, markers, and conference room etc for in house training to be efficient and effective and cost effective. Therefore this paper concludes that there is no best method of training resources but it mostly relies on the needs and capabilities of an organisation. Hence an organisation should choose what is best for it and also consider balancing all the methods provided in this paper. REFERENCES http://dictionary. reference. com/browse/resources Training Development: Fertile Ground for BPO. IDC, May 2003 [pic] ———————– [pic]

Marketing Concepts to Increase Continuous Sales and Profit Research Paper

Marketing Concepts to Increase Continuous Sales and Profit - Research Paper Example The research paper "Marketing Concepts to Increase Continuous Sales and Profit" talks about the online shopping which is taking a giant leap facilitating the shoppers to shop from home. Consumer online shopping revenues are predicted to increase from nearly $15 billion in 2000 to $35.3 billion in 2002 and poses a serious challenge to brick and mortar retail industry. After a careful review of the online store, it was revealed that store offered products associated with women and hence it was necessary to throng the sites with women visitors by learning their behavior and implementing the same of the website. While formulating the best strategy, it was deemed fit to provide a unique shopping experience to the shoppers and visitors by providing them the interface to use, buy and send virtual goods and develop an application to integrate with Facebook, by awarding Facebook credits on every purchase of virtual goods as well as real goods. â€Å"Virtual† is the word that is hitting the online entrepreneurs and they are using it in their business strategy to provide unique surfing on the website. Most of the social gaming websites, social networking sites are using virtual goods as a medium to earn revenue as well offer their product in a virtual form which can be purchased, used and can be sent as a gift to their friends and relatives. The popularity of virtual goods is increasing as international sales of virtual goods have outpaced the US with $3.5 billion to $4 billion sales in 2009.

Hollywood Cinema Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Hollywood Cinema - Essay Example cal implication of women getting more and more involved with cinema during the classical period of Hollywood, it is important to have a brief and a close grasp at the classical period of Hollywood cinema. In the film history, classical period refers strictly to a style of cinema that involved a particular visual and audio mode in production of cinema during the period between 1927 and 1963 in the American film industry. A very unique and identifiable style evolved in the cinema during this period and that style actually came to be known as classical Hollywood style. Developed on the principle of continuity editing which is also known as â€Å"invisible style†, the American cinema started gaining more popular grounds amid the masses. In a modernist or postmodernist works, visual arts did witness the call of attention between the camera and the sound recording. In the classical periods, these two main facets of the cinema making were placed completely at peace with each other ma king the presentation smoother and eloquent. It would be very unjustified action, if the cinemas produced during the classical period of Hollywood are judged under the light of feminist film theories. The movement of feminism in the cultural arena of America gained its strong grounds during 70s and the transition of silent cinema into a complete audio-visual mode was over by 60s itself. Yet, to trace the importance of women to cinema going during the classical period of Hollywood cinema, a thorough study of feminist interpretation of the cinema would definitely guide to the platform upon which the social importance of women to cinema going could be traced naturally. Theoretical film criticism developed on the matrix of feminist politics and feminist theory and an approach to cinema analysis of... As discussed in the introductory part of the essay, to comprehend the thesis pertaining to the sociological implication of women getting more and more involved with cinema during the classical period of Hollywood, it is important to have a brief and a close grasp at the classical period of Hollywood cinema. In the film history, classical period refers strictly to a style of cinema that involved a particular visual and audio mode in production of cinema during the period between 1927 and 1963 in the American film industry. A very unique and identifiable style evolved in the cinema during this period and that style actually came to be known as classical Hollywood style. Developed on the principle of continuity editing which is also known as â€Å"invisible style†, the American cinema started gaining more popular grounds amid the masses. In a modernist or postmodernist works, visual arts did witness the call of attention between the camera and the sound recording. In the classica l periods, these two main facets of the cinema making were placed completely at peace with each other making the presentation smoother and eloquent. This report makes a conclusion that cinema over the years have faced transition but irrespective of any gender, class or age Hollywood cinema have been able to enchant and engross millions of spectator across the globe. It is evident that the role of cinema into the life of women is far reaching. Once, who were captivated inside the four walls of their household, got their foremost chance of tasting liberty of thought process and a scope to gaze out to the world beyond the four walls of their house and watch the world with a new vision and perspective.

A4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A4 - Essay Example Staff may normally read legal correspondence only if the Governor suspects that their it could harm prison security, or the safety of others, or are otherwise of a criminal nature. In this case the prisoner involved shall be given the opportunity to be present and informed that their correspondence is to be read. Mr. Daly, a long term convict has objected to the checking of prisoners’ legal correspondence in their absence. He submits that section 47(1) of the Prison Act 1952, which empowers the Secretary of State to make rules for the regulation of prisons and for the discipline and control of prisoners, does not authorise the laying down and implementation of such a policy . â€Å"The requirement that a prisoner may not be present when his legally privileged correspondence is examined by prison officers,† is the clause to which he has objected strongly. He feels this is not only against the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, but also a violation of common law for human rights. On 9 September 1994, six category A prisoners, (who were as classified as presenting an exceptional risk) escaped from the Special Security Unit at HMP Whitemoor. This happened because over a period of time, prisoners and staff had become familiar with each other and the security checks had become less vigilant. "inspite of the deprivation of his general liberty, a prisoner still has rights related to the nature and conduct of his imprisonment . . . and can take the option of courts unless some statute decrees otherwise." In its report the inquiry team made a number of recommendations. One of these was that cells and property should be searched at frequent but irregular intervals. Following a strip search, each prisoner was to be excluded from his cell during the search, to avoid intimidation. However,

City and Developer Spar over Coney Island Visions Case Study

City and Developer Spar over Coney Island Visions - Case Study Example Bloomberg is a businessman himself and believes in achieving profits through growth and development. He believes in advantages of empowering the private sector and his administration has expedited permits and sanctioned building designs with minimum interference. The administration has been encouraging companies to start business in Coney by providing incentives in the form of tax breaks and freeing up unutilized areas along the beachfront. The general public was divided in their opinion about the proposed development of the amusement park. While some agreed that a sophisticated and expensive amusement park was required in Coney to attract tourists, especially from neighboring areas, others were wondering about the costs to be incurred and whether the place would get enough tourists. Some were of the opinion that since people would visit Disneyland and other specialized places for amusement and vacations, there would not be enough money coming into the city through the new plans. As Charles Bagli wrote in The New York Times, "The proposed rezoning, which covers 19 blocks and 47 acres from the New York Aquarium west along the oceanfront to Highland View Park, would transform an area pockmarked with empty lots and seedy buildings that still manages to attract millions of visitors every summer to the beaches, a ballpark and assorted attractions from roller coasters to sword swallowers.[nov,2007]." There have been criticisms of the city's plan, from various fronts. The groups Save Coney Island and the Municipal Art Society, argue that the amusement district is too small and would be weighed down by development. They argue that to be really successful, the administration must have at least three times more land dedicated to the new amusement park and also introduce whacky rides. The group has also suggested the installation of an "eye popping" Ferris Wheel at a height of 443 feet, similar to the London Eye. The most vocal criticism has been that of Joseph Sitt, the owner of Thor equities. Sitt had bought property worth $100 million in Coney in 2005.He has visions of putting up an amusement park like Disney World in place of the existing amusement park. He put forth his plans before the public arguing that to be economically feasible, there should be time-share hotels/condominiums and large retail shops. The administration however, doesn't permit the building of time-share holidays is under the city's zoning proposal. To further pressurize the government into action in his favour, he had promised to buy more land around central Coney area and even evicted some tenants like Astroland amusement park, adding to the vacant plots on the waterfront. In partnership with private builders, the Bloomberg administration has offered the city the most affordable homes in a long time. The question here is, can Coney afford such extravagance at this point in time The common man is not concerned about the success of either Bloomberg's plan or Sitt's plan for the upcoming amusement park. He is already burdened by problems of recession, which in turn is going to affect the profits at the amusement parks. Retail sales too have been declining over the past two years and arranging finance for the project would be a bigger problem. Whether Bloomberg's proposal is

Digital Textile Printing Technologies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6250 words

Digital Textile Printing Technologies - Essay Example Product innovation and services would be the assets for competition and the key to growth in the future. International companies can only face the competition by selling know-how intensive products to the Chinese market and by focusing on the quality and technology lead. Technical textiles are likely to develop into a niche market for companies based in Europe and the US. These textiles promise good business potential, with worldwide consumption expected to touch 20.58 million tonnes by 2006 and 24.67 m.t. by 2010. In 2005, consumption of technical textiles stood at 18.69 m.t. Technical textiles find application in several fields such as agriculture, where the worldwide consumption in 2005 stood at 15.81 lakh tonnes, in the building industry (16.48 lakh tonnes), clothing industry (12.38 lakh tonnes), the medical field (15.43 lakh tonnes) and even sports (9.89 lakh tonnes), among others. The last two decades have witnessed substantial effort in improvement of printing technology in the world. Conventional product lines have given way to new automated digital printing technology. The rapidly growing world of digitally printed textiles is a reflection of several exclusive and different business models that create challenges, threats and opportunities to the future of the textile printing market. The challeng The challenges in digital textile printing industries include finding suitable markets and changing their paradigms, limitations of materials, testing requirements, the current pace of technology, and set individual challenges in making digital textile printing technology grow successfully in this new world. The first challenge is to find the right market for the digital printing industry to flourish and grow. Second challenge is understanding the pros and cons and varying characteristics of the materials in the market today. Keeping up with technology improvements and changes is the only way for the potential prospects of the digital textile industry. Product Innovation Product innovation means different things to different people. Some, for example, tend to think in terms of a product which is 'first of its kind'. Such radical innovation is not necessarily more important than the steady, incremental improvements to existing ranges of

Deforestation as an Environmental Problem Assignment

Deforestation as an Environmental Problem - Assignment Example The aim of the discourse, therefore, is to provide a short report on the subject of deforestation by: (1) providing a brief summary the problem; (2) by outlining its causes; and finally, (3) analyzing some possible solutions to the problem. Brief Summary of the Problem Deforestation is defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) as referring â€Å"to change of land cover with depletion of tree crown cover to less than 10 percent. Changes within the forest class (e.g. from closed to open forest) which negatively affect the stand or site and, in particular, lower the production capacity, are termed forest degradation† (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2000, p. 1). Deforestation is regarded as an environmental problem for the reasons that cutting of trees or depletion of forests and woodlands leave insufficient numbers of trees which have been proven to store vast amounts of carbon needed to prevent continued global warming. Also, due to clearing activities in forest s and agricultural areas, the burning of trees emit substantial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which is deemed contributory to the green house effect (Oracle Think Quest n.d.). Likewise, trees also have natural abilities to aborb water, if vast amounts of trees are uprooted and cut, the deforested region is therefore prone to floods or extreme dryness, causing further destruction of lives (human, animals and plants). Concurrently, trees and forests have been revealed to function as ways for conserving biological diversity where various flora and fauna have survived in their natural habitat. Deforestation through natural (storms, blizzard, eathquakes) and human induced activities disrupt and contribute to the loss of biodiveristy which eventually leads to extinction of endanged species. Cause of Deforestation As revealed, the causes of deforestation are varied; ranging from finding other alternative uses for the land for planting, grazing animals, being used as residential areas d ue to population expansion, being allocated as roads, subdivisions, and even for logging (Oracle Think Quest, n.d.). As deduced, deforestation is caused by human activities to satisfy diverse human needs. According to the FAO Key Findings Report on Global Forest Assessment in 2010, â€Å"deforestation – mainly the conversion of tropical forests to agricultural land – shows signs of decreasing in several countries but continues at a high rate in others. Around 13 million hectares of forest were converted to other uses or lost through natural causes each year in the last decade compared to 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s† (FAO, 2010, p. 3). Possible Solutions At the onset, one could analyze that the solution to this dilemma is straightforward: to replant trees and to stop cutting those that are still currently surviving. However, to implement this, those identified to be authorized to maintain, monitor and restrict cutting and focus on preservation and c onservation must design strategies and plans for management and governance through policies and regulations. As disclosed by FAO (2010), â€Å"80% of the world’s forests are publicly owned, but ownership and management of forests by communities, individuals and private companies is on the rise†

The benefits for children when their individual needs are met

The benefits for children when their individual needs are met Explain the benefits for children when their individual needs are met. Each child develops at different rates; this includes growth, development and learning. As soon as a child is born they are learning. It is how we respond to each individuals needs can have an effect over how an individual develops. Development matters is a document which roughly outlines at what developments or milestones should be completed at what age. It is important to monitor each individual to check that these milestones have been reached as early intervention maybe required to meet a childs developmental needs. The earlier identification can take place, the sooner additional support can be implemented to minimise disruption in an individual developmental requirements. There are many reasons that may affect why a child may require additional support. If a child is delivered prematurely it will delay development as a child needs to continue the development with medical support to complete the development that would naturally happen in the womb. This would then carry on to have a development delay in many of the milestones completed at a full term child would have completed these difference have usually disappeared by the age of two unless there is other development problems. If a child is born with a disability it does not automatically follow that there will be a development delay in achieving many of the early milestones. They may however need additional support or a different way of learning in future to meet any specific needs. Illness can also have an effect; minor illness can affect how a child acts on a daily basis whereas a long term illness can have a major impact on how a child develops. Environmental issues can effect a childs development both physically and emotionally. If a child is in a poor environment there may not be the opportunities for outdoor play or their dietary requirements may not be met. Albert Bandura believes that a good social environment is pivotal as children copy the actions of others, so need good role models Stress either through illness, abuse or loss of a close family member can lead to development problems as it can cause them to have a very negative view of themselves. When a childs needs are fully met it gives them a strong starting point to explore the world around them. This aids their learning process as it gives them the confidence to try new things. Describe how the principles of anti-discriminatory practice can be applied to practice. Anti-discrimination must be applied to all areas of learning, to discriminate against an individual is to treat them less favourable than others. This will obviously have an effect on their own self-image and knock their confidence; this in itself could aid development delays as they will not have the confidence in themselves to try new things. Everyone is quite different whether it is from being from a different cultural background, learning abilities or disabilities or talents. Each difference should be celebrated and each child have their own unique needs met. The United Nations Convention on the rights of children deems that as each child is unique it is a childs right to air their views and opinions and that as a care giver you should have the best interests of the child as the core of your practice. The EY Statutory framework deems that policies should be in place to promote equal opportunity for all children in each establishment and that they should state how an individualâ⠂¬â„¢s needs should be met. All children should not just be treated the same, they should however, be given the same concern and attention to enable their own unique needs and personalities to be met and that they can develop their own identity and have a positive self-image. Discrimination may be as a result of prejudice. Any practice should celebrate cultural differences by introducing toys and resources from all faiths and cultures. These do not have to be introduced just because a child of a different faith or background has started to attend but should be common place as we are form a very diverse culture. This is good practice so all children will not have preconceived ideas but are open to absorb the experiences of others. UNICEF the convention states that every child has the right to a childhood, to be educated, to be healthy, to be treated fairly and the right to be heard. Describe why it is important to plan activities that meet the individual needs of children. It is important to plan activities around each individual child to ensure that their emotional and development needs are met. Unique child states children often learn and develop best when they are doing an activity that they enjoy. EY Statutory framework says that we as practitioners must consider each individuals needs and plan activities that are challenging and enjoyable for each child. Each child should be designated their own key worker so that they can act as the main caregiver. They should participate in the everyday routines and the planning and assessments for each child. All practitioners should follow a cycle of planning, assessment and observation for the children in their care. When observation takes place it is important to see how the child acts when playing freely. We are able to see what their interests are and what they are able to do for themselves. Through these observations we are able to see what a childs knowledge and understanding their skills and abilities b ut we are not putting undue pressure on the child. Through assessments we are able to see how well their can actually perform different tasks and allows them to put in practice this knowledge. When looking at the planning stage we are able to draw on our findings from assessment and observation and plan activities for building activities moulded for the child, for example if a child needs to perhaps build on their fine motor skills and loves cars, we could encourage them to make cars using Lego. Following this process allows us to stimulate and stretch a childs understanding and ability but not so much that they lose interest or are negatively affected by an activity that may yet be too hard that they are unable to complete. Differentiation is when these activities are adapted to the needs of each individual so they can participate fully in all activities. This includes adult interaction, specialist equipment adapting resources communication and langue assistance. A Unique child it states that all children within a group will be at different stages of development and will need different levels of support. With variable learning outcomes it enables us to have an individual outcome for each child to achieve. Explain how the practitioner can promote the children’s physical and emotional wellbeing within an early setting. Promoting health and wellbeing is essential in all practices. All children should feel safe and happy when in someone’s care. To aid a child to feel safe when joining they should be assigned a key worker who will be the first point of contact for both child and parents. A Unique child states that independent learning should be promoted, through our observations and planning this can be achieved as tasks can be set and the child encouraged making choices. Children should be encourage to interact with others and model behaviour on good role models. Movement should also be promoted through either indoor or outdoor play.

Illegal Immigration And Border Security

Illegal Immigration And Border Security Introduction Department of homeland security is one of the reactions of 9/11 attacks on United States of America. It is a cabinet department of federal government of USA. It was formed on November 25, 2002. DHS was mainly formed to fight terrorism. DHS imbibed Immigration and Neutralization Services in March 2003. After assuming its duties, DHS divided the enforcement and services functions in to two different new agencies. Those two new agencies are named as immigrations and customs enforcement and citizenship and immigration services. Investigation division and intelligence gathering unit of Immigration and Neutralization services and custom services were merged to form Homeland security investigations. All these are designed to make the homeland United States of America save and secure. It was formed to assure the people of USA to secure them from any kind of terrorist related activities and also from threats like illegal immigration. The five core missions of homeland security are as follows. (Smith, 2006) Prevent terrorism and enhancing security. Secure and manage our borders. Enforce and administer our immigration laws. Safeguard and secure cyberspace. Ensure resilience to disasters.   (http://www.dhs.gov/our-mission) Department of homeland security strives to protect the nation from terrorism by increasing the security, by securing borders to prevent illegal immigration which is one of the ways for terrorists to enter in to the country. Country border security is maintained by DHS. This includes protecting USA air, land and sea point of entries. Border security force securely regulates lawful trade and travel. It also fights against illegal terrorist transactions. The department also revised laws related to immigration to prioritize the identification and removal of criminal aliens who will be the potential threats for public safety. DHS also secures cyberspace of civilian government computer systems. It also responds in the event of natural disasters coordination with federal and state partners. (Alden, 2012) Illegal Immigration As we know US is found by Great Britain. Over centuries USA has developed its culture. But still it has an essence of British culture. Unite States is known as nation of immigrants. Immigrants contributed a lot to nations development. Our nation trusted many immigrants to for its development and designing its infrastructure. If we trace the ancestors of many American citizens, they will lead to origin outside the country. America significantly has a heterogeneous culture. In 19th century immigrant labor made a significant contribution towards transcontinental rail road construction. In 20th century, immigrants like Enrico Fermi and Werner Von Braun made a notable contribution for national security. More noticeably there were significant contributions for broadcast and entrainment industry from immigrants. Some of the known examples are Penelope Cruz from Spain. Jim Carry, Pamela Anderson and Michael J Fox are from Canada. The ancestors of famous pop singer Michael Jackson who is also known as King of Pop is originally from Africa. A well-known actor and also former governor of California is originally from Gratz, Austria. This recognizable list of immigrants proves that USA receives open society of those who want to in migrate into country and make their identity. But, unfortunately there are many situations where illegal immigrations are reported which has become primary national threat in the present day. (Smith, 2006) Illegal immigration has become one of the major threats for the nation. It has become a priority national security issue that has to be dealt with immediately and forcibly. It can no longer be viewed as secondary issue besides terrorism and drugs. Illegal immigration is related to both of them. It is of the reasons where terrorism and drug dealing issues are developing its roots in the country. Solving this issue can reduce the illegal weapon and drug transactions to maximum extent. If this is left unresolved, there is a chance for our enemies to take advantages of the situation which will be threat for public safety. This problem of illegal immigration leaves three symptoms. It poses a question on inability to defend the border and enforce the immigration laws strictly. On top of all the policies and laws exists in the federal and state levels, illegal immigrations makes the citizenship meaningless, legal immigrant status pointless and illegal immigrant status penalty-less. This add s to reasons for which drugs and terrorists increasing in the country. Secondly, due to technology in the present situation, illegal immigrants have ties with their origin which doesnt make immigrants to invest proportionate effort to personally identify the new culture. This decreases factors like patriotism, loyalty and citizenship. Thirdly, at some point illegal immigrants was the cause of the reintroductions of the diseases that are eradicated decades ago. This poses a serious threat for the public safety. There are situations where some activists for illegal immigrants forced bilingual education and also subsidies on the education which was an extra burden on taxpayer. This makes the citizenship really meaningless. On top of all this, there are prisons filling with illegal immigrants of some petty crimes to drug dealing and even to murder cases. These situations leave a big burden on tax payer. This also will be the threat for public safety. Illegal Immigration in future turns in to national crisis even if it only circumscribed to our nations infrastructure. According to the latest news, the effect of illegal immigrations increased to a significant level. Large illegal immigration groups may cause a significant threat to nations security. There is a chance for terrorists to enter and also influence the other illegal immigrants towards their activities. There is also a chance of recruiting them in to terrorist organizations like al-Qaeda and other potential terrorist groups whose primary motive is to harm USA. The same illegal group under potential leadership may cause significant loss for the nation. (Rosenblum, 2012) (Smith, 2006) There are many events where there is a human flood of immigration in to the country. Most of the immigrants came from northern and western parts of Europe before the civil war. From 1890 and 1920 more immigrants sailed from southern and eastern European countries like Greece, Poland and Italy. In 1910, there was a large group migrated in to the country which contributes to a significant number of about 13.5 million who are settled in USA. The estimated population of both legal and illegal immigrations till date is about 35 million. Bracero program is one of the events where there is significant amount of immigration. Bracero program was designed by United States after 2nd world war to compensate the shortage of agriculture labor. The program was started in 1942 and ended in 1964. The program legally employed 4.5 million Mexican citizens to work mainly in Texas and California. This was a temporary arrangement which stated that they should return back to their country after 1964. Bracero program had a statutory position of a bilaterally treaty that offered measure of regulation and control. This was used as a loophole by many immigrants to enter with the intention of settling here. The estimated immigrants through bracero program are about 1.1 million. This equals to adding a city which is a size of Dallas every year. This leads to cause problems for legal residents. This also leads some terrorists to migrate in to the country easily. There are many reports stating there are many criminal activities near USA bord er such as MS-13. Terrorists using flaws in immigration laws enter in to the country and leads to some severe problems. Not only terrorists, there are many others like drug cartels that enter in to the country exploiting flaws in the immigration laws. Drug dealing is mainly controlled by illegal immigrants. Besides all this, corrupt Mexican law enforcement officials help in illegal immigration through southern border. (Alden, 2012) (http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2008homest/needs.pdf) (Rosenblum, 2012) Exploiting immigration laws also served as an opportunity for the Lee Boyd Malvo who is alleged for random sniper attacks in Richmond, VA and Washington D.C. It was reported that he was illegally immigrated following his mother who is also migrated illegally and remained in the country. Along the southern border there was increase in lawlessness which pushed civilian border patrol and law enforcement personnel in to risk. This lawlessness by illegal immigrants helped them to generate income through drugs and support a drug cartel that indeed supports terrorist organizations. This also served them to intrude in to the country and develop their network all over the country. This also explained how 9/11 hijackers exploited immigration laws and entered in to the country. Economic impact is one of the primary reasons for illegal immigration. Irish potato blight of 1845-1849 is one of the economic disasters. At that time many refugees left Ireland for USA. The main reason for Mexicans to enter the country is mostly economic. As we know Mexico is a developing country. There are two significant sources income for the Mexico. One is direct sales of oil and second is income from the people who resides in USA and sends money to their relatives. Although there are some entrepreneurs and skilled workers there is more unemployment which leads them for migrating it to USA where the can find ample of employment opportunities. The only reason for them to migrate is money. The can earn money which has higher value than their national currency and as mentioned plenty of employment oppurnities. Prior to 9/11 attacks either governments was strict about immigration laws. The illegal worker was named as undocumented worker. After 9/11 attacks, laws were made rigid to p revent illegal immigration which may cause threat to public safety. Border security: It is the core element of Department of Homeland Security to prevent illegal immigration with U.S. border patrol (USBP) within the Bureau of customs and border protection (CBF). Border security acquired additional attention since 9/11 attacks. Since 1990 migration was controlled at the border by the strategy called prevention through deterrence. It is the idea that the concentration of personnel, surveillance technology and infrastructure along thickly trafficked region of the border prevents unauthorized entry. Since 2005, CBF attempted to reduce illegal entry by imposing heavy penalties and implementing policies known as enforcement with consequences. Immigration and reform act was implemented in 1986. After many events, IRCA authorized 50% increase in the size of USBP. 10 additional laws was added which are related to immigration. This was the reaction for 9/11 attacks. Country faces a deadly situation where border security has become primary entity. The significant decrease of il legal immigrants was lowered only after 2007. This is only because of increased enforcement. Illegal immigration has become a major problem when bracero program was implemented. From the laws of enforcement was made rigid. Despite of rigid laws there was a significant increase in illegal immigration till 2007. It was only controlled from 2007. (Rosenblum, 2012) Border control strategy: Seventy later its formation, border patrol designed its first formal national border control strategy in 1994 which is called as National strategic plan. This plan was updated as a reaction of 9/11 attacks. The new plan was published in 2012. The existing plans were based on the operational strategy of prevention through deterrence as mentioned earlier. Its main goal is to reduce illegal immigration to a significant level. CBF has also strived to decrease illegal entry by imposing high penalties and also by enforcement with consequences strategy. (Rosenblum, 2012) National strategic plan: In is the outcome of increased unauthorized immigration along southwest border of USA. It was developed in 1994. Drug smuggling was the serious problem along the southwest border. INS then changed it approach of arresting the illegal immigrants to prevent their entry. NSP designed multi-phase strategy where phase I involves hold the line program in El Paso, TX, and operational gatekeeper in San Diego, CA. Phase II includes increase of Operation Rio Grande in Texas. Phase III and phase IV includes remaining southwest border. This was a successful strategy where arrests of illegal entry were increased and reduced number of immigrants. National border patrol strategy: After 9/11 attacks, USBP has formulated new NBPS. It was designed to emphasis on terrorism. Its main motto was to prevent terrorism. The five main objectives of NBPS are as follows. (Rosenblum, 2012) By increasing the number of apprehension of terrorists and prevent their illegal entry and also prevent weapon smuggling. Decreasing illegal entry by improving enforcement laws. Detecting, apprehending and deterring smugglers of drugs and human. Leveraging Smart border technology. Reducing crime in border communities. Conclusion: Illegal immigration is one of the biggest threats to nation. It is one of the reasons for terrorism and drugs in the country. It decreases the value of legal citizen. It acts as root cause for many criminal activities, drugs, terrorism etc. This has to be prevented. Border security is striving to fight against illegal immigration.

Assisted Suicide :: essays papers

Assisted Suicide It is upsetting and depressing living life in the shadow of death. Many questions appear on this debatable topic, such as should we legalize euthanasia? What is euthanasia? What is assisted suicide? What is the difference between Passive and Active Euthanasia? What is Voluntary, Non-voluntary and Involuntary Euthanasia? What is Mercy Killing? What is "Death with dignity"? But if euthanasia was legalized, wouldn't patients then die peacefully rather than using plastic bags or other methods? And unfortunately the list continues. No one denies that there are many vulnerable persons who require the protection of the law. Take, for example, those in a temporary state of clinical depression, perhaps caused by a traumatic event in their lives. These persons will recover and go on to lead productive, happy lives, and it would be unconscionable to encourage or support them in a transitory wish to die. There are also many unemployed and unemployable, many disabled of all ages, and many senior citizens whose families might, for selfish or downright malicious reasons, encourage them to seek assisted suicide. All kinds of people in difficult situations could be at risk of being intimidated or forced into feeling their early death would be a convenience to society. Section 241 is doubly flawed. It is not an especially effective drawback against those who seek to prey on the vulnerable, but at the same time it forces persons enduring intolerable suffering to exist in that state against their own wishes, thus denying them their right of self-determination as citizens in a free democracy. Competent, rational human beings must have the right to determine their own health care according to their personal wishes, values and beliefs, as long as such a determination does not jeopardize the safety or well-being of any other person. We do not believe, for instance, that people have the right to kill themselves by driving recklessly and in so doing jeopardize the safety of others. To kill oneself by causing an explosion that will inevitably put others at risk is horror. It is also reproachable to end one's own life without regard to the trauma it might inflict on the vulnerable. People shall never forget the horror suffered by two young children who arrived home after school to find their mother hanging from the hall chandelier, or by a teen-age boy who found his father with his head blown apart from a self-inflicted shotgun wound in the kitchen of their home. We also need to consider the anguish of family members, friends and even health-care professionals who must continue to witness, day after day, Assisted Suicide :: essays papers Assisted Suicide It is upsetting and depressing living life in the shadow of death. Many questions appear on this debatable topic, such as should we legalize euthanasia? What is euthanasia? What is assisted suicide? What is the difference between Passive and Active Euthanasia? What is Voluntary, Non-voluntary and Involuntary Euthanasia? What is Mercy Killing? What is "Death with dignity"? But if euthanasia was legalized, wouldn't patients then die peacefully rather than using plastic bags or other methods? And unfortunately the list continues. No one denies that there are many vulnerable persons who require the protection of the law. Take, for example, those in a temporary state of clinical depression, perhaps caused by a traumatic event in their lives. These persons will recover and go on to lead productive, happy lives, and it would be unconscionable to encourage or support them in a transitory wish to die. There are also many unemployed and unemployable, many disabled of all ages, and many senior citizens whose families might, for selfish or downright malicious reasons, encourage them to seek assisted suicide. All kinds of people in difficult situations could be at risk of being intimidated or forced into feeling their early death would be a convenience to society. Section 241 is doubly flawed. It is not an especially effective drawback against those who seek to prey on the vulnerable, but at the same time it forces persons enduring intolerable suffering to exist in that state against their own wishes, thus denying them their right of self-determination as citizens in a free democracy. Competent, rational human beings must have the right to determine their own health care according to their personal wishes, values and beliefs, as long as such a determination does not jeopardize the safety or well-being of any other person. We do not believe, for instance, that people have the right to kill themselves by driving recklessly and in so doing jeopardize the safety of others. To kill oneself by causing an explosion that will inevitably put others at risk is horror. It is also reproachable to end one's own life without regard to the trauma it might inflict on the vulnerable. People shall never forget the horror suffered by two young children who arrived home after school to find their mother hanging from the hall chandelier, or by a teen-age boy who found his father with his head blown apart from a self-inflicted shotgun wound in the kitchen of their home. We also need to consider the anguish of family members, friends and even health-care professionals who must continue to witness, day after day,

The Character of Jefferson in A Lesson Before Dying :: A Lesson Before Dying, Ernest J. Gaines

Jefferson, a black man condemned to die by the electric chair in the novel, A Lesson Before Dying, by Ernest J. Gaines, is perhaps the strongest character in African-American literature. Jefferson is a courageous young black man that a jury of all white men convicts of a murder he has not committed ; yet he still does not let this defeat destroy his personal character. Ernest Gaines portrays Jefferson this way to illustrate the fundamental belief that mankind’s defeats do not necessarily lead to his destruction. The author uses such actions as Jefferson still enjoying outside comforts, showing compassion towards others, and trying to better himself before dying. These behaviors clearly show that although society may cast Jefferson out as a black murderer, he can still triumph somewhat knowing that he retains the qualities of a good human being.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first trait Jefferson demonstrates after his incarceration is the fact that he still enjoys the outside comforts of small things such as a radio and diary. The fact that Jefferson still wants these things shows his imprisonment does not defeat him. In one of his last diary entries, Jefferson says , â€Å"shef guiry ax me what I want for my super an I tol him I want nanan to cook me som okra an rice an som pok chop an a conbred an som claba† (232). Jefferson still enjoys his aunt’s cooking, an outside pleasure from prison. The fact that he can still take pleasure from these small outside things clearly demonstrates that Jefferson enjoys a small victory over the world that has locked him away.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second characteristic that shows society does not defeat Jefferson is Jefferson’s remaining strong compassion for everyone around him. This shows that through defeat, Jefferson remains a strong person by not holding any grudges against his incarcerators. A selection from his diary reads, â€Å"This was the firs time I cry when they lok that door bahind me the very firs time†¦I was cryin cause of the bok an the marble he giv me and cause o the people that com to see me† (231). Jefferson displays tenderness, which is an obvious sign that Jefferson has not let his imprisonment destroy him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The final attribute Gaines uses in A Lesson Before Dying to show Jefferson’s lack of destruction is his trying to better himself before dying. Jefferson does this by repeatedly seeing Grant Wiggins and Reverend Ambrose in prison before his execution.

Japanese Industrialization and Economic Growth Essay

Japan achieved sustained growth in per capita income between the 1880s and 1970 through industrialization. Moving along an income growth trajectory through expansion of manufacturing is hardly unique. Indeed Western Europe, Canada, Australia and the United States all attained high levels of income per capita by shifting from agrarian-based production to manufacturing and technologically sophisticated service sector activity. Still, there are four distinctive features of Japan’s development through industrialization that merit discussion: The proto-industrial base Japan’s agricultural productivity was high enough to sustain substantial craft (proto-industrial) production in both rural and urban areas of the country prior to industrialization. Investment-led growth Domestic investment in industry and infrastructure was the driving force behind growth in Japanese output. Both private and public sectors invested in infrastructure, national and local governments serving as coordinating agents for infrastructure build-up. * Investment in manufacturing capacity was largely left to the private sector. * Rising domestic savings made increasing capital accumulation possible. * Japanese growth was investment-led, not export-led. Total factor productivity growth — achieving more output per unit of input — was rapid. On the supply side, total factor productivity growth was extremely important. Scale economies — the reduction in per unit costs due to increased levels of output — contributed to total factor productivity growth. Scale economies existed due to geographic concentration, to growth of the national economy, and to growth in the output of individual companies. In addition, companies moved down the â€Å"learning curve,† reducing unit costs as their cumulative output rose and demand for their product soared. The social capacity for importing and adapting foreign technology improved and this contributed to total factor productivity growth: * At the household level, investing in education of children improved social capability. * At the firm level, creating internalized labor markets that bound firms to workers and workers to firms, thereby giving workers a strong incentive to flexibly adapt to new technology, improved social capability. * At the government level, industrial policy that reduced the cost to private firms of securing foreign technology enhanced social capacity. Shifting out of low-productivity agriculture into high productivity manufacturing, mining, and construction contributed to total factor productivity growth. Dualism Sharply segmented labor and capital markets emerged in Japan after the 1910s. The capital intensive sector enjoying high ratios of capital to labor paid relatively high wages, and the labor intensive sector paid relatively low wages. Dualism contributed to income inequality and therefore to domestic social unrest. After 1945 a series of public policy reforms addressed inequality and erased much of the social bitterness around dualism that ravaged Japan prior to World War II. The remainder of this article will expand on a number of the themes mentioned above. The appendix reviews quantitative evidence concerning these points. The conclusion of the article lists references that provide a wealth of detailed evidence supporting the points above, which this article can only begin to explore. The Legacy of Autarky and the Proto-Industrial Economy: Achievements of Tokugawa Japan (1600-1868) Why Japan? Given the relatively poor record of countries outside the European cultural area — few achieving the kind of â€Å"catch-up† growth Japan managed between 1880 and 1970 – the question naturally arises: why Japan? After all, when the United States forcibly â€Å"opened Japan† in the 1850s and Japan was forced to cede extra-territorial rights to a number of Western nations as had China earlier in the 1840s, many Westerners and Japanese alike thought Japan’s prospects seemed dim indeed. Tokugawa achievements: urbanization, road networks, rice cultivation, craft production In answering this question, Mosk (2001), Minami (1994) and Ohkawa and Rosovsky (1973) emphasize the achievements of Tokugawa Japan (1600-1868) during a long period of â€Å"closed country† autarky between the mid-seventeenth century and the 1850s: a high level of urbanization; well developed road networks; the channeling of river water flow with embankments and the extensive elaboration of irrigation ditches that supported and encouraged the refinement of rice cultivation based upon improving seed varieties, fertilizers and planting methods especially in the Southwest with its relatively long growing season; the development of proto-industrial (craft) production by merchant houses in the major cities like Osaka and Edo (now called Tokyo) and its diffusion to rural areas after 1700; and the promotion of education and population control among both the military elite (the samurai) and the well- to-do peasantry in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Tokugawa political economy: daimyo and shogun These developments were inseparable from the political economy of Japan. The system of confederation government introduced at the end of the fifteenth century placed certain powers in the hands of feudal warlords, daimyo, and certain powers in the hands of the shogun, the most powerful of the warlords. Each daimyo — and the shogun — was assigned a geographic region, a domain, being given taxation authority over the peasants residing in the villages of the domain. Intercourse with foreign powers was monopolized by the shogun, thereby preventing daimyo from cementing alliances with other countries in an effort to overthrow the central government. The samurai military retainers of thedaimyo were forced to abandon rice farming and reside in the castle town headquarters of their daimyo overlord. In exchange, samurai received rice stipends from the rice taxes collected from the villages of their domain. By removingsamurai from the countryside — by demilitarizing rural areas — conflicts over local water rights were largely made a thing of the past. As a result irrigation ditches were extended throughout the valleys, and riverbanks were shored up with stone embankments, facilitating transport and preventing flooding. The sustained growth of proto-industrialization in urban Japan, and its widespread diffusion to villages after 1700 was also inseparable from the productivity growth in paddy rice production and the growing of industrial crops like tea, fruit, mulberry plant growing (that sustained the raising of silk cocoons) and cotton. Indeed, Smith (1988) has given pride of place to these â€Å"domestic sources† of Japan’s future industrial success. Readiness to emulate the West As a result of these domestic advances, Japan was well positioned to take up the Western challenge. It harnessed its infrastructure, its high level of literacy, and its proto-industrial distribution networks to the task of emulating Western organizational forms and Western techniques in energy production, first and foremost enlisting inorganic energy sources like coal and the other fossil fuels to generate steam power. Having intensively developed the organic economy depending upon natural energy flows like wind, water and fire, Japanese were quite prepared to master inorganic production after the Black Ships of the Americans forced Japan to jettison its long-standing autarky. From Balanced to Dualistic Growth, 1887-1938: Infrastructure and Manufacturing Expand Fukoku Kyohei After the Tokugawa government collapsed in 1868, a new Meiji government committed to the twin policies of fukoku kyohei (wealthy country/strong military) took up the challenge of renegotiating its treaties with the Western powers. It created infrastructure that facilitated industrialization. It built a modern navy and army that could keep the Western powers at bay and establish a protective buffer zone in North East Asia that eventually formed the basis for a burgeoning Japanese empire in Asia and the Pacific. Central government reforms in education, finance and transportation Jettisoning the confederation style government of the Tokugawa era, the new leaders of the new Meiji government fashioned a unitary state with powerful ministries consolidating authority in the capital, Tokyo. The freshly minted Ministry of Education promoted compulsory primary schooling for the masses and elite university education aimed at deepening engineering and scientific knowledge. The Ministry of Finance created the Bank of Japan in 1882, laying the foundations for a private banking system backed up a lender of last resort. The government began building a steam railroad trunk line girding the four major islands, encouraging private companies to participate in the project. In particular, the national government committed itself to constructing a Tokaido line connecting the Tokyo/Yokohama region to the Osaka/Kobe conurbation along the Pacific coastline of the main island of Honshu, and to creating deepwater harbors at Yokohama and Kobe that could accommodate deep-hulled steamships. Not surprisingly, the merchants in Osaka, the merchant capital of Tokugawa Japan, already well versed in proto-industrial production, turned to harnessing steam and coal, investing heavily in integrated sp inning and weaving steam-driven textile mills during the 1880s. Diffusion of best-practice agriculture At the same time, the abolition of the three hundred or so feudal fiefs that were the backbone of confederation style-Tokugawa rule and their consolidation into politically weak prefectures, under a strong national government that virtually monopolized taxation authority, gave a strong push to the diffusion of best practice agricultural technique. The nationwide diffusion of seed varieties developed in the Southwest fiefs of Tokugawa Japan spearheaded a substantial improvement in agricultural productivity especially in the Northeast. Simultaneously, expansion of agriculture using traditional Japanese technology agriculture and manufacturing using imported Western technology resulted. Balanced growth Growth at the close of the nineteenth century was balanced in the sense that traditional and modern technology using sectors grew at roughly equal rates, and labor — especially young girls recruited out of farm households to labor in the steam using textile mills — flowed back and forth between rural and urban Japan at wages that were roughly equal in industrial and agricultural pursuits. Geographic economies of scale in the Tokaido belt Concentration of industrial production first in Osaka and subsequently throughout the Tokaido belt fostered powerful geographic scale economies (the ability to reduce per unit costs as output levels increase), reducing the costs of securing energy, raw materials and access to global markets for enterprises located in the great harbor metropolises stretching from the massive Osaka/Kobe complex northward to the teeming Tokyo/Yokohama conurbation. Between 1904 and 1911, electrification mainly due to the proliferation of intercity electrical railroads created economies of scale in the nascent industrial belt facing outward onto the Pacific. The consolidation of two huge hydroelectric power grids during the 1920s — one servicing Tokyo/Yokohama, the other Osaka and Kobe — further solidified the comparative advantage of the Tokaido industrial belt in factory production. Finally, the widening and paving during the 1920s of roads that could handle buses and trucks was also pione ered by the great metropolises of the Tokaido, which further bolstered their relative advantage in per capita infrastructure. Organizational economies of scale — zaibatsu In addition to geographic scale economies, organizational scale economies also became increasingly important in the late nineteenth centuries. The formation of the zaibatsu (â€Å"financial cliques†), which gradually evolved into diversified industrial combines tied together through central holding companies, is a case in point. By the 1910s these had evolved into highly diversified combines, binding together enterprises in banking and insurance, trading companies, mining concerns, textiles, iron and steel plants, and machinery manufactures. By channeling profits from older industries into new lines of activity like electrical machinery manufacturing, the zaibatsu form of organization generated scale economies in finance, trade and manufacturing, drastically reducing information-gathering and transactions costs. By attracting relatively scare managerial and entrepreneurial talent, the zaibatsu format economized on human resources. Electrification The push into electrical machinery production during the 1920s had a revolutionary impact on manufacturing. Effective exploitation of steam power required the use of large central steam engines simultaneously driving a large number of machines — power looms and mules in a spinning/weaving plant for instance – throughout a factory. Small enterprises did not mechanize in the steam era. But with electrification the â€Å"unit drive† system of mechanization spread. Each machine could be powered up independently of one another. Mechanization spread rapidly to the smallest factory. Emergence of the dualistic economy With the drive into heavy industries — chemicals, iron and steel, machinery — the demand for skilled labor that would flexibly respond to rapid changes in technique soared. Large firms in these industries began offering premium wages and guarantees of employment in good times and bad as a way of motivating and holding onto valuable workers. A dualistic economy emerged during the 1910s. Small firms, light industry and agriculture offered relatively low wages. Large enterprises in the heavy industries offered much more favorable remuneration, extending paternalistic benefits like company housing and company welfare programs to their â€Å"internal labor markets.† As a result a widening gulf opened up between the great metropolitan centers of the Tokaido and rural Japan. Income per head was far higher in the great industrial centers than in the hinterland. Clashing urban/rural and landlord/tenant interests The economic strains of emergent dualism were amplified by the slowing down of technological progress in the agricultural sector, which had exhaustively reaped the benefits due to regional diffusion from the Southwest to the Northeast of best practice Tokugawa rice cultivation. Landlords — around 45% of the cultivable rice paddy land in Japan was held in some form of tenancy at the beginning of the twentieth century — who had played a crucial role in promoting the diffusion of traditional best practice techniques now lost interest in rural affairs and turned their attention to industrial activities. Tenants also found their interests disregarded by the national authorities in Tokyo, who were increasingly focused on supplying cheap foodstuffs to the burgeoning industrial belt by promoting agricultural production within the empire that it was assembling through military victories. Japan secured Taiwan from China in 1895, and formally brought Korea under its imperial rule in 1910 upon the heels of its successful war against Russia in 1904-05. Tenant unions reacted to this callous disrespect of their needs through violence. Landlord/tenant disputes broke out in the early 1920s, and continued to plague Japan politically throughout the 1930s, calls for land reform and bureaucratic proposals for reform being rejected by a Diet (Japan’s legislature) politically dominated by landlords. Japan’s military expansion Japan’s thrust to imperial expansion was inflamed by the growing instability of the geopolitical and international trade regime of the later 1920s and early 1930s. The relative decline of the United Kingdom as an economic power doomed a gold standard regime tied to the British pound. The United States was becoming a potential contender to the United Kingdom as the backer of a gold standard regime but its long history of high tariffs and isolationism deterred it from taking over leadership in promoting global trade openness. Germany and the Soviet Union were increasingly becoming industrial and military giants on the Eurasian land mass committed to ideologies hostile to the liberal democracy championed by the United Kingdom and the United States. It was against this international backdrop that Japan began aggressively staking out its claim to being the dominant military power in East Asia and the Pacific, thereby bringing it into conflict with the United States and the United K ingdom in the Asian and Pacific theaters after the world slipped into global warfare in 1939. Reform and Reconstruction in a New International Economic Order, Japan after World War II Postwar occupation: economic and institutional restructuring Surrendering to the United States and its allies in 1945, Japan’s economy and infrastructure was revamped under the S.C.A.P (Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers) Occupation lasting through 1951. As Nakamura (1995) points out, a variety of Occupation-sponsored reforms transformed the institutional environment conditioning economic performance in Japan. The major zaibatsu were liquidated by the Holding Company Liquidation Commission set up under the Occupation (they were revamped as keiretsu corporate groups mainly tied together through cross-shareholding of stock in the aftermath of the Occupation); land reform wiped out landlordism and gave a strong push to agricultural productivity through mechanization of rice cultivation; and collective bargaining, largely illegal under the Peace Preservation Act that was used to suppress union organizing during the interwar period, was given the imprimatur of constitutional legality. Finally, education was opened up, partly through making middle school compulsory, partly through the creation of national universities in each of Japan’s forty-six prefectures. Improvement in the social capability for economic growth In short, from a domestic point of view, the social capability for importing and adapting foreign technology was improved with the reforms in education and the fillip to competition given by the dissolution of the zaibatsu. Resolving tension between rural and urban Japan through land reform and the establishment of a rice price support program — that guaranteed farmers incomes comparable to blue collar industrial workers — also contributed to the social capacity to absorb foreign technology by suppressing the political divisions between metropolitan and hinterland Japan that plagued the nation during the interwar years. Japan and the postwar international order The revamped international economic order contributed to the social capability of importing and adapting foreign technology. The instability of the 1920s and 1930s was replaced with replaced with a relatively predictable bipolar world in which the United States and the Soviet Union opposed each other in both geopolitical and ideological arenas. The United States became an architect of multilateral architecture designed to encourage trade through its sponsorship of the United Nations, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (the predecessor to the World Trade Organization). Under the logic of building military alliances to contain Eurasian Communism, the United States brought Japan under its â€Å"nuclear umbrella† with a bilateral security treaty. American companies were encouraged to license technology to Japanese companies in the new international environment. Japan redirected its trade away from the areas that had been incorporated into the Japanese Empire before 1945, and towards the huge and expanding American market. Miracle Growth: Soaring Domestic Investment and Export Growth, 1953-1970 Its infrastructure revitalized through the Occupation period reforms, its capacity to import and export enhanced by the new international economic order, and its access to American technology bolstered through its security pact with the United States, Japan experienced the dramatic â€Å"Miracle Growth† between 1953 and the early 1970s whose sources have been cogently analyzed by Denison and Chung (1976). Especially striking in the Miracle Growth period was the remarkable increase in the rate of domestic fixed capital formation, the rise in the investment proportion being matched by a rising savings rate whose secular increase — especially that of private household savings – has been well documented and analyzed by Horioka (1991). While Japan continued to close the gap in income per capita between itself and the United States after the early 1970s, most scholars believe that large Japanese m anufacturing enterprises had by and large become internationally competitive by the early 1970s. In this sense it can be said that Japan had completed its nine decade long convergence to international competitiveness through industrialization by the early 1970s. MITI There is little doubt that the social capacity to import and adapt foreign technology was vastly improved in the aftermath of the Pacific War. Creating social consensus with Land Reform and agricultural subsidies reduced political divisiveness, extending compulsory education and breaking up the zaibatsu had a positive impact. Fashioning the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (M.I.T.I.) that took responsibility for overseeing industrial policy is also viewed as facilitating Japan’s social capability. There is no doubt that M.I.T.I. drove down the cost of securing foreign technology. By intervening between Japanese firms and foreign companies, it acted as a single buyer of technology, playing off competing American and European enterprises in order to reduce the royalties Japanese concerns had to pay on technology licenses. By keeping domestic patent periods short, M.I.T.I. encouraged rapid diffusion of technology. And in some cases — the experience of International Business Machines (I.B.M.), enjoying a virtual monopoly in global mainframe computer markets during the 1950s and early 1960s, is a classical case — M.I.T.I. made it a condition of entry into the Japanese market (through the creation of a subsidiary Japan I.B.M. in the case of I.B.M.) that foreign companies share many of their technological secrets with potential Japanese competitors. How important industrial policy was for Miracle Growth remains controversial, however. The view of Johnson (1982), who hails industrial policy as a pillar of the Japanese Development State (government promoting economic growth through state policies) has been criticized and revised by subsequent scholars. The book by Uriu (1996) is a case in point. Internal labor markets, just-in-time inventory and quality control circles Furthering the internalization of labor markets — the premium wages and long-term employment guarantees largely restricted to white collar workers were extended to blue collar workers with the legalization of unions and collective bargaining after 1945 — also raised the social capability of adapting foreign technology. Internalizing labor created a highly flexible labor force in post-1950 Japan. As a result, Japanese workers embraced many of the key ideas of Just-in-Time inventory control and Quality Control circles in assembly industries, learning how to do rapid machine setups as part and parcel of an effort to produce components â€Å"just-in-time† and without defect. Ironically, the concepts of just-in-time and quality control were originally developed in the United States, just-in-time methods being pioneered by supermarkets and quality control by efficiency experts like W. Edwards Deming. Yet it was in Japan that these concepts were relentlessly pursued to revolutionize assembly line industries during the 1950s and 1960s. Ultimate causes of the Japanese economic â€Å"miracle† Miracle Growth was the completion of a protracted historical process involving enhancing human capital, massive accumulation of physical capital including infrastructure and private manufacturing capacity, the importation and adaptation of foreign technology, and the creation of scale economies, which took decades and decades to realize. Dubbed a miracle, it is best seen as the reaping of a bountiful harvest whose seeds were painstakingly planted in the six decades between 1880 and 1938. In the course of the nine decades between the 1880s and 1970, Japan amassed and lost a sprawling empire, reorienting its trade and geopolitical stance through the twists and turns of history. While the ultimate sources of growth can be ferreted out through some form of statistical accounting, the specific way these sources were marshaled in practice is inseparable from the history of Japan itself and of the global environment within which it has realized its industrial destiny. Appendix: Sources of Growth Accounting and Quantitative Aspects of Japan’s Modern Economic Development One of the attractions of studying Japan’s post-1880 economic development is the abundance of quantitative data documenting Japan’s growth. Estimates of Japanese income and output by sector, capital stock and labor force extend back to the 1880s, a period when Japanese income per capita was low. Consequently statistical probing of Japan’s long-run growth from relative poverty to abundance is possible. The remainder of this appendix is devoted to introducing the reader to the vast literature on quantitative analysis of Japan’s economic development from the 1880s until 1970, a nine decade period during which Japanese income per capita converged towards income per capita levels in Western Europe. As the reader will see, this discussion confirms the importance of factors discussed at the outset of this article. Our initial touchstone is the excellent â€Å"sources of growth† accounting analysis carried out by Denison and Chung (1976) on Japan’s growth between 1953 and 1971. Attributing growth in national income in growth of inputs, the factors of production — capital and labor — and growth in output per unit of the two inputs combined (total factor productivity) along the following lines: G(Y) = { a G(K) + [1-a] G(L) } + G (A) where G(Y) is the (annual) growth of national output, g(K) is the growth rate of capital services, G(L) is the growth rate of labor services, a is capital’s share in national income (the share of income accruing to owners of capital), and G(A) is the growth of total factor productivity, is a standard approach used to approximate the sources of growth of income. Using a variant of this type of decomposition that takes into account improvements in the quality of capital and labor, estimates of scale economies and adjustments for structural change (shifting labor out of agriculture helps explain why total factor productivity grows), Denison and Chung (1976) generate a useful set of estimates for Japan’s Miracle Growth era. Operating with this â€Å"sources of growth† approach and proceeding under a variety of plausible assumptions, Denison and Chung (1976) estimate that of Japan’s average annual real national income growth of 8.77 % over 1953-71, input growth accounted for 3.95% (accounting for 45% of total growth) and growth in output per unit of input contributed 4.82% (accounting for 55% of total growth). To be sure, the precise assumptions and techniques they use can be criticized. The precise numerical results they arrive at can be argued over. Still, their general point — that Japan’s growth was the result of improvements in the quality of factor inputs — health and education for workers, for instance — and improvements in the way these inputs are utilized in production — due to technological and organizational change, reallocation of resources from agriculture to non-agriculture, and scale economies, is defensible. Notes: [a] Maddison (2000) provides estimates of real income that take into account the purchasing power of national currencies. [b] Ohkawa (1979) gives estimates for the â€Å"N† sector that is defined as manufacturing and mining (Ma) plus construction plus facilitating industry (transport, communications and utilities). It should be noted that the concept of an â€Å"N† sector is not standard in the field of economics. [c] The estimates of trade are obtained by adding merchandise imports to merchandise exports. Trade openness is estimated by taking the ratio of total (merchandise) trade to national output, the latter defined as Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.). The trade figures include trade with Japan’s empire (Korea, Taiwan, Manchuria, etc.); the income figures for Japan exclude income generated in the empire. [d] The Human Development Index is a composite variable formed by adding together indices for educational attainment, for health (using life expectancy that is inversely related to the level of the infant mortality rate, the IMR), and for real per capita income. For a detailed discussion of this index see United Nations Development Programme (2000). [e] Electrical generation is measured in million kilowatts generated and supplied. For 1970, the figures on NHK subscribers are for television subscribers. The symbol n.a. = not available. Sources: The figures in this table are taken from various pages and tables in Japan Statistical Association (1987), Maddison (2000), Minami (1994), and Ohkawa (1979). Flowing from this table are a number of points that bear lessons of the Denison and Chung (1976) decomposition. One cluster of points bears upon the timing of Japan’s income per capita growth and the relationship of manufacturing expansion to income growth. Another highlights improvements in the quality of the labor input. Yet another points to the overriding importance of domestic investment in manufacturing and the lesser significance of trade demand. A fourth group suggests that infrastructure has been important to economic growth and industrial expansion in Japan, as exemplified by the figures on electricity generating capacity and the mass diffusion of communications in the form of radio and television broadcasting. Several parts of Table 1 point to industrialization, defined as an increase in the proportion of output (and labor force) attributable to manufacturing and mining, as the driving force in explaining Japan’s income per capita growth. Notable in Panels A and B of the table is that the gap between Japanese and American income per capita closed most decisively during the 1910s, the 1930s, and the 1960s, precisely the periods when manufacturing expansion was the most vigorous. Equally noteworthy of the spurts of the 1910s, 1930s and the 1960s is the overriding importance of gross domestic fixed capital formation, that is investment, for growth in demand. By contrast, trade seems much less important to growth in demand during these critical decades, a point emphasized by both Minami (1994) and by Ohkawa and Rosovsky (1973). The notion that Japanese growth was â€Å"export led† during the nine decades between 1880 and 1970 when Japan caught up technologically with the leading Western nations is not defensible. Rather, domestic capital investment seems to be the driving force behind aggregate demand expansion. The periods of especially intense capital formation were also the periods when manufacturing production soared. Capital formation in manufacturing, or in infrastructure supporting manufacturing expansion, is the main agent pushing long-run income per capita growth. Why? As Ohkawa and Rosovsky (1973) argue, spurts in manufacturing capital formation were associated with the import and adaptation of foreign technology, especially from the United States These investment spurts were also associated with shifts of labor force out of agriculture and into manufacturing, construction and facilitating sectors where labor productivity was far higher than it was in labor-intensive farming centered around labor-intensive rice cultivation. The logic of productivity gain due to more efficient allocation of labor resources is apparent from the right hand column of Panel A in Table 1. Finally, Panel C of Table 1 suggests that infrastructure investment that facilitated health and educational attainment (combined public and private expenditure on sanitation, schools and research laboratories), and public/private investment in physical infrastructure including dams and hydroelectric power grids helped fuel the expansion of manufacturing by improving human capital and by reducing the costs of transportation, communications and energy supply faced by private factories. Mosk (2001) argues that investments in human-capital-enhancing (medicine, public health and education), financial (banking) and physical infrastructure (harbors, roads, power grids, railroads and communications) laid the groundwork for industrial expansions. Indeed, the â€Å"social capability for importing and adapting foreign technology† emphasized by Ohkawa and Rosovsky (1973) can be largely explained by an infrastructure-driven growth hypothesis like that given by Mosk (2001). In sum, Denison and Chung (1976) argue that a combination of input factor improvement and growth in output per combined factor inputs account for Japan’s most rapid spurt of economic growth. Table 1 suggests that labor quality improved because health was enhanced and educational attainment increased; that investment in manufacturing was important not only because it increased capital stock itself but also because it reduced dependence on agriculture and went hand in glove with improvements in knowledge; and that the social capacity to absorb and adapt Western technology that fueled improvements in knowledge was associated with infrastructure investment. References Denison, Edward and William Chung. â€Å"Economic Growth and Its Sources.† In Asia’s Next Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works, edited by Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosovsky, 63-151. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1976. Horioka, Charles Y. â€Å"Future Trends in Japan’s Savings Rate and the Implications Thereof for Japan’s External Imbalance.†Japan and the World Economy 3 (1991): 307-330. Japan Statistical Association. Historical Statistics of Japan [Five Volumes]. Tokyo: Japan Statistical Association, 1987. Johnson, Chalmers. MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925-1975. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982. Maddison, Angus. Monitoring the World Economy, 1820-1992. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2000. Minami, Ryoshin. Economic Development of Japan: A Quantitative Study. [Second edition]. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press, 1994. Mitchell, Brian. International Hi storical Statistics: Africa and Asia. New York: New York University Press, 1982. Mosk, Carl. Japanese Industrial History: Technology, Urbanization, and Economic Growth. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2001. Nakamura, Takafusa. The Postwar Japanese Economy: Its Development and Structure, 1937-1994. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1995. Ohkawa, Kazushi. â€Å"Production Structure.† In Patterns of Japanese Economic Development: A Quantitative Appraisal, edited by Kazushi Ohkawa and Miyohei Shinohara with Larry Meissner, 34-58. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979. Ohkawa, Kazushi and Henry Rosovsky. Japanese Economic Growth: Trend Acceleration in the Twentieth Century. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973. Smith, Thomas. Native Sources of Japanese Industrialization, 1750-1920. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. Uriu, Robert. Troubled Industries: Confronting Economic Challenge in Japan. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996. United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report, 2000. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Citation: Mosk, Carl. â€Å"Japan, Industrialization and Economic Growth†. EH.Net Encyclopedia, edited by Robert Whaples. January 18, 2004. URL http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/mosk.japan.final